![]() counties don’t have a single psychiatrist, and, last year, a survey conducted by the American Psychological Association found that sixty per cent of mental-health practitioners don’t have openings for new patients. In the analog world, that sort of consistent, ongoing care is hard to find: more than half of U.S. is “best done in small quantities over and over and over again,” she told me. many experienced striking improvements but relapsed after they left the hospital. When Darcy was in graduate school, she treated dozens of hospitalized patients using C.B.T. The app uses a form of artificial intelligence called natural language processing to interpret what users say, guiding them through sequences of pre-written responses that spur them to consider how their minds could work differently. Its approach is based on cognitive behavioral therapy, or C.B.T.-a treatment that aims to change patterns in people’s thinking. In 2017, Alison Darcy, a clinical research psychologist at Stanford, founded Woebot, a company that provides automated mental-health support through a smartphone app. But the idea that computers could serve as human confidants, expanding therapy’s reach beyond the limits of its overworked practitioners, persisted through the decades. Exchanges with these chatbots were often engaging, sometimes comical, and occasionally nonsensical. Sbaitso, and Alice (the Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity). Over time, programmers developed Jabberwacky, Dr. P ARRY: I beat up the bookie who did not pay off, and I thought he might use his friends in the underworld to get even with me. P ARRY: Do you know anything about bookies?Į liza: What makes you think I know anything about bookies? In 1972, Parry and Eliza met up for a therapy session: Psychiatrists given transcripts of therapy sessions often couldn’t tell the difference between Parry and humans in this narrow sense, the chatbot passed the Turing test. A few years later, a Stanford psychiatrist named Kenneth Colby created Parry, a program that attempted to simulate the language of a person with paranoid schizophrenia, to train students before they cared for real patients. “But the genie was out of the bottle,” Brian Christian, who chronicled the episode in his book “The Most Human Human,” told me. Weizenbaum became an outspoken critic of artificial intelligence. “The human therapist, involved in the design and operation of this system, would not be replaced, but would become a much more efficient man since his efforts would no longer be limited to the one-to-one patient-therapist ratio as now exists.” “Several hundred patients an hour could be handled by a computer system designed for this purpose,” three psychiatrists wrote in The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, in 1966. Worse, doctors saw it as a potentially transformative tool. His own secretary asked him to leave the room so that she could spend time alone with Eliza. He was alarmed, therefore, when many people who tried the program found it both useful and captivating. ![]() He doubted that computers could simulate meaningful human interaction. ![]()
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